The History of Separation of Church and State in the United States
The concept of separation between church and state in the United States, enshrined in the First Amendment—“Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof”—was primarily a federal restriction aimed at preventing the national government from establishing or interfering with religion. It did not initially bind the states, many of which upheld official churches or religious mandates for decades after ratification. The founders’ writings consistently portray this separation as a safeguard for religious institutions against governmental overreach, rather than a barrier to keep faith out of public life. However, over time, through judicial expansions and cultural shifts, the principle has been reframed—critics argue as a propaganda tool by secularists and Democrats—to diminish religious, particularly Christian, influence in society. This article examines the founders’ perspectives, state-level religious establishments, evidence of America’s Christian foundations (including counterpoints to claims of secular origins), and the evolution of interpretations.
The Founders’ Vision: Protecting Religion from Federal Interference
The framers, shaped by Enlightenment rationalism, colonial religious strife, and a predominantly Christian populace, sought to avoid the religious wars of Europe by limiting federal power over faith. Their documents and correspondence reveal a commitment to religious liberty that preserved the church’s autonomy while acknowledging religion’s role in moral governance. Notably, while some founders expressed deistic views, the majority drew on Christian principles, and public acknowledgments of God were commonplace. Historical analysis shows that of the 55 delegates to the Constitutional Convention, at least 28 were Episcopalians, 8 Presbyterians, 7 Congregationalists, and others from various Protestant denominations, with only a few identified as Deists. This religious composition influenced their views, emphasizing a government supportive of religious morality without establishing a specific sect. Further evidence indicates that the founders frequently referenced the Bible in their writings; a study by Donald Lutz found that 34% of all quotes in political writings from 1760-1805 came from the Bible, more than any other source. Benjamin Rush, a signer of the Declaration, emphasized: “Without religion there can be no virtue, and without virtue there can be no liberty, and liberty is the object and life of all republican governments.”
Thomas Jefferson: The “Wall of Separation”
Thomas Jefferson’s 1802 letter to the Danbury Baptists introduced the “wall of separation” as a protective barrier for religion: “Believing with you that religion is a matter which lies solely between Man & his God… thus building a wall of separation between Church & State.” This was contextualized in his Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom (1786), which ended state support for the Anglican Church to prevent coercion and preserve faith’s integrity. Jefferson further elaborated in his Notes on the State of Virginia that “the legitimate powers of government extend to such acts only as are injurious to others. But it does me no injury for my neighbor to say there are twenty gods, or no god.” Despite his deistic leanings, Jefferson attended church services in the Capitol and supported federal funding for missionary work among Native Americans, indicating he saw religion as beneficial to society. He also stated: “God who gave us life gave us liberty. And can the liberties of a nation be thought secure when we have removed their only firm basis, a conviction in the minds of the people that these liberties are of the gift of God?”James Madison: Opposing Religious Entanglements
In his “Memorial and Remonstrance” (1785), Madison warned against government funding religion, arguing it perverts salvation and assumes civil authority over truth. He believed separation enhanced both religion and government’s purity. Madison also stated in a letter to Edward Livingston in 1822: “Religion flourishes in greater purity, without than with the aid of Government.” As president, Madison vetoed bills that would grant land to churches, arguing they violated the Establishment Clause, yet he proclaimed national days of prayer and fasting during the War of 1812, showing his support for public religious expressions. Madison further wrote: “The purpose of separation of church and state is to keep forever from these shores the ceaseless strife that has soaked the soil of Europe in blood for centuries.”
George Washington: Religion as a Pillar of Society
Washington’s Farewell Address (1796) highlighted religion’s indispensability: “Religion and morality are indispensable supports” for political prosperity. He routinely invoked Providence in proclamations, such as his 1789 Thanksgiving Proclamation, calling for national gratitude to “Almighty God.” Washington also wrote to the Hebrew Congregation in Newport in 1790: “May the children of the Stock of Abraham, who dwell in this land, continue to merit and enjoy the good will of the other Inhabitants; while every one shall sit in safety under his own vine and figtree, and there shall be none to make him afraid.” This reflects his commitment to religious tolerance while maintaining a theistic framework. As commander-in-chief, Washington required chaplains in the Continental Army and encouraged soldiers to attend religious services, underscoring his belief in religion’s role in discipline and morale. He stated: “While we are zealously performing the duties of good citizens and soldiers, we certainly ought not to be inattentive to the higher duties of religion.”
John Adams: A Nuanced View on Christianity and Government
John Adams, in the 1797 Treaty of Tripoli, stated: “As the Government of the United States of America is not, in any sense, founded on the Christian religion,—as it has in itself no character of enmity against the laws, religion, or tranquillity, of Mussulmen [Muslims].” This clause, aimed at assuring Muslim Barbary pirates of U.S. neutrality in religious matters during negotiations to end ship seizures, was diplomatic language to emphasize no holy war or state-enforced Christianity, not a denial of Christian influences. Critics often cite it to argue a secular founding, but Adams’ other writings provide counterevidence of deep Christian underpinnings.
Adams frequently affirmed Christianity’s role in American society. In a 1798 address to the Massachusetts militia, he declared: “Our Constitution was made only for a moral and religious people. It is wholly inadequate to the government of any other.” He viewed Christianity as essential for virtue, stating in 1813 to Thomas Jefferson: “Who composed that Army of fine young Fellows that was then before my Eyes? There were among them, Roman Catholicks, English Episcopalians, Scotch and American Presbyterians, Methodists, Moravians, Anababtists, Germans Calvinists, Mennonists, Bohimian Brethren, and Baptists… The general Principles, on which the Fathers Atchieved Independence, were the only Principles in which that beautiful Assembly of young Gentlemen could Unite… And what were these general Principles? I answer, the general Principles of Christianity.” Adams also proclaimed national days of fasting and prayer, invoking “the Redeemer of the world” and emphasizing Christian duties. These statements suggest that while the government structure avoided establishing a specific sect, its moral foundation was rooted in Christian ethics. Additionally, Adams wrote in 1776: “Statesmen, my dear Sir, may plan and speculate for Liberty, but it is Religion and Morality alone, which can establish the Principles upon which Freedom can securely stand.” He further noted: “We recognize no Sovereign but God, and no king but Jesus.”
Other Founders: Blending Faith and Governance
Benjamin Franklin: Called for prayer at the Constitutional Convention, citing Psalm 127:1—“Except the Lord build the house, they labor in vain that build it.” Franklin proposed a daily prayer for the Convention, stating: “I therefore beg leave to move—that henceforth prayers imploring the assistance of Heaven, and its blessings on our deliberations, be held in this Assembly every morning before we proceed to business.” He also said: “I have lived, Sir, a long time, and the longer I live, the more convincing proofs I see of this truth—that God governs in the affairs of men.”
Charles Pinckney: Proposed no federal religious laws, yet supported Christian education. He stated at the Constitutional Convention: “The legislature of the United States shall pass no law on the subject of religion.”
Samuel Adams: Known as the “Father of the American Revolution,” he wrote: “The liberties of our country, the freedom of our civil constitution, are worth defending at all hazards… It is our duty to defend them against all attacks… We have received them as a fair inheritance from our worthy ancestors: They purchased them for us with toil and danger and expense of treasure and blood… Let us contemplate our forefathers and posterity; and resolve to maintain the rights bequeath’d to us from the former, for the sake of the latter.” Adams also proclaimed as Governor of Massachusetts: “I… recommend to them to make publick religion and piety to God and benevolence to men, their grand concern.” He further stated: “A general dissolution of principles and manners will more surely overthrow the liberties of America than the whole force of the common enemy.”
Patrick Henry: Famously declared: “It cannot be emphasized too strongly or too often that this great nation was founded, not by religionists, but by Christians; not on religions, but on the gospel of Jesus Christ!” Though this quote is sometimes disputed, Henry’s documented views include: “The Bible is worth all the other books which have ever been printed.” He also said: “Whether this [new government] will prove a blessing or a curse will depend upon the use our people make of the blessings which a gracious God hath bestowed on us.”
John Jay: First Chief Justice, co-author of the Federalist Papers, stated: “Every member of the State ought diligently to discover and seek to promote the public good… Americans should select and prefer Christians for their rulers.” He also wrote: “The Bible will also inform them that our gracious Creator has provided for us a Redeemer, in whom all the nations of the earth shall be blessed.”
Alexander Hamilton: Advocated for Christian principles in governance, stating: “For my own part, I sincerely esteem it a system which without the finger of God, never could have been suggested and agreed upon by such a diversity of interests.”
Gouverneur Morris: Penned much of the Constitution, declaring: “Religion is the only solid basis of good morals; therefore education should teach the precepts of religion, and the duties of man toward God.”
Ronald Reagan (later echoing): Affirmed separation but noted America’s “under God” heritage, saying in 1984: “If we ever forget that we’re one nation under God, then we will be a nation gone under.”
Evidence of America’s Christian Foundations
Despite claims of a purely secular founding, substantial evidence indicates America was established on Christian principles, with Christianity woven into its cultural, legal, and institutional fabric. A 2022 Pew survey found 60% of Americans believe the founders intended a Christian nation, reflecting historical perceptions, with 81% of White evangelical Protestants holding this view. A 2022 Pew poll also showed that more than four-in-ten Americans think the U.S. should be a Christian nation, though interpretations vary. Historians like David Barton argue that the founders referenced the Bible more than any other source in their political writings, with over 34% of quotes from the Declaration and Constitution era drawn from Scripture. The overwhelming majority of founding documents and early laws reflect Judeo-Christian ethics, such as the concept of inalienable rights derived from “the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God.”
Colonial Charters and Declarations: The Mayflower Compact (1620) invoked “the Glory of God, and Advancement of the Christian Faith.” Many state constitutions referenced God or Christianity, e.g., Delaware’s 1776 requirement for officeholders to profess faith in “Jesus Christ.” The Virginia Declaration of Rights (1776) stated that “all men are by nature equally free and independent and have certain inherent rights… namely, the enjoyment of life and liberty, with the means of acquiring and possessing property, and pursuing and obtaining happiness and safety,” rooted in Christian natural law. The Fundamental Orders of Connecticut (1639), often called the first written constitution, began: “For as much as it hath pleased Almighty God by the wise disposition of his divine providence…” The Jamestown Charter (1606) aimed to propagate the “Christian Religion to such People, as yet live in Darkness.” The Pennsylvania Charter of Privileges (1701) by William Penn emphasized religious freedom but within a Christian framework.
Supreme Court Affirmations: In Church of the Holy Trinity v. United States (1892), Justice David Brewer declared: “This is a Christian nation,” citing colonial laws, customs, and demographics. Earlier, in Vidal v. Girard’s Executors (1844), the Court noted Christianity’s integration into common law. In Updegraph v. Commonwealth (1824), a state court upheld blasphemy laws, stating Christianity was part of the common law. In Runkel v. Winemiller (1799), the Court affirmed: “By our form of government, the Christian religion is the established religion.”
Founders’ Personal Faith: Over 50 signers of the Declaration were Christians; Congress printed Bibles for schools in 1782, recommending “the Holy Bible for use in all schools.” Washington, Adams, and others attended church and supported missionary work. Benjamin Rush, signer of the Declaration, wrote: “The only foundation for a useful education in a republic is to be laid in religion. Without this there can be no virtue, and without virtue there can be no liberty.” Noah Webster stated: “The religion which has introduced civil liberty is the religion of Christ and His apostles… This is genuine Christianity and to this we owe our free constitutions of government.”
Legal and Cultural Markers: The Declaration of Independence references “Nature’s God,” “Creator,” and “divine Providence.” Oaths end with “so help me God”; national motto “In God We Trust” (1956, but rooted earlier); Pledge of Allegiance includes “under God” (1954). The Supreme Court building features Moses and the Ten Commandments in its friezes, symbolizing the influence of Judeo-Christian law. Early Northwest Ordinance (1787) stated: “Religion, morality, and knowledge being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged.”
Ongoing Christian Identity: Christianity remains the majority religion (about 65% identify as Christian per recent polls). Federal holidays like Christmas and Easter reflect this; state preambles often thank “Almighty God.” Public Christianity was integral to the founding, as seen in prayer in Congress and military chaplains. The Continental Congress issued 15 calls for prayer, fasting, and thanksgiving between 1774 and 1783. In the 19th century, evangelicalism thrived, influencing social reforms like abolitionism and temperance.
Counterarguments posit deist founders and the Treaty of Tripoli as evidence against, but these are often contextualized as avoiding sectarianism, not rejecting Christian moral influence. For instance, critics argue that the U.S. was founded on Enlightenment principles, not Christianity, pointing to the absence of God in the Constitution and the secular nature of the government structure. Some historians, like John Fea, contend that claims of a Christian founding distort history to advance modern political agendas, emphasizing the diversity of religious views among founders and the intentional secularism in federal documents. Others note that while Christian influences existed, the founders rejected theocratic models, drawing from Locke and Montesquieu for separation to prevent religious tyranny. Historians argue the U.S. was not founded as a Christian nation in the sense of a theocracy, and documents like the Declaration draw from deistic or natural law ideas rather than explicit biblical mandates. Critics of “Christian nationalism” assert it poses a threat to religious freedom, promoting an anti-democratic view that America is for Christians alone. Thomas Paine’s “Common Sense” reinforced secular republicanism, and some founders like Franklin and Jefferson expressed skepticism toward organized Christianity. Historians note the founders drew on Christian concepts like natural rights from biblical sources, but balanced with secular governance to ensure freedom for all faiths.
State-Level Established Churches: Autonomy in Religious Matters
States retained religious establishments post-founding, underscoring the federal limit. Nine of the original 13 colonies had established churches at the time of the Revolution, primarily Anglican in the South and Congregational in New England. Although not every colony had one officially designated state religion, every colonial government had some elements of a religious “establishment,” such as tax support for ministers, religious tests for office, or laws enforcing Sabbath observance. The disestablishment process was gradual, driven by religious diversity and Enlightenment ideas.
Massachusetts: 1780 Constitution supported Protestant worship via taxes; disestablished 1833. The constitution required towns to provide for public worship, and officeholders had to declare belief in the Christian religion until amendments in the 1820s. The Puritan-influenced system linked church membership to voting rights initially.
Connecticut: Congregational; disestablished 1818. The state’s 1818 constitution ended tax support for churches, influenced by growing Baptist and Methodist populations. It had been a theocracy-like system under the Fundamental Orders.
New Hampshire: Congregational; disestablished 1819. Similar to Massachusetts, it required Protestant faith for office until 1877. The state supported ministers through town taxes.
Virginia: Anglican; disestablished 1786. Jefferson’s Statute ended state support, but earlier, Patrick Henry proposed a general assessment for Christian teachers, opposed by Madison. Dissenters like Baptists pushed for freedom.
Maryland: Anglican establishment ended in 1776; required belief in Christianity for office until 1826. Originally founded as a Catholic haven, it shifted to Protestant dominance after the Protestant Revolution of 1689.
North Carolina: Anglican; disestablished 1776. The constitution barred clergy from office but required Protestant faith for officials until 1835. Religious taxes were collected for Protestant ministers.
South Carolina: Anglican; disestablished 1790. The 1778 constitution established Protestantism generally, allowing tax support for churches and requiring officeholders to be Protestants.
Georgia: Anglican; disestablished 1789. Early charters promoted Christianity, but the state moved to religious freedom post-Revolution, though with initial support for Protestant teachers.
New York: No formal establishment after 1777, but earlier Anglican preferences; disestablished fully by 1846 constitution. The state had laws supporting Christian Sabbath and blasphemy prohibitions.
New Jersey: No formal establishment, but Anglican influence; religious tests for office until 1844.
Pennsylvania: No establishment, founded on Quaker principles of tolerance, but with Christian oaths.
Delaware: No establishment after 1776, but required faith in the Trinity for office until 1792.
Rhode Island: Never had an establishment, founded by Roger Williams for religious freedom.
By 1833, all disestablished, but Christian oaths and references persisted in many state constitutions well into the 19th century, with some requiring belief in God or Christianity for office until the 1960s.
The Evolution: From Federal Limit to Alleged Propaganda Tool
Incorporation via the 14th Amendment and cases like Everson v. Board of Education (1947) applied separation to states, expanding to ban school prayer (Engel v. Vitale, 1962). In Everson, the Court upheld bus reimbursements for parochial schools but affirmed Jefferson’s “wall” metaphor, stating: “The First Amendment has erected a wall between church and state. That wall must be kept high and impregnable.” Engel ruled that state-sponsored prayer violated the Establishment Clause, even if voluntary. Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971) established the “Lemon Test” for laws: secular purpose, no primary effect advancing/inhibiting religion, no excessive entanglement. Reynolds v. United States (1879) upheld anti-polygamy laws, citing Jefferson’s wall and noting religious beliefs are protected but actions may be regulated. Abington School District v. Schempp (1963) banned Bible readings in schools. Stone v. Graham (1980) struck down mandatory Ten Commandments postings in classrooms. Critics view this as secularist propaganda, often aligned with Democratic policies, to erase Christian heritage—e.g., removing Ten Commandments displays. Recent rulings like Kennedy v. Bremerton (2022) push back, favoring historical practices by allowing a coach’s post-game prayer, stating: “The Constitution neither mandates nor tolerates that kind of discrimination.” Carson v. Makin (2022) required states to include religious schools in tuition assistance programs, and as of 2025, cases like a potential challenge to public funding for religious charters continue to test boundaries. The Court has also addressed issues in Town of Greece v. Galloway (2014), allowing legislative prayer, and American Legion v. American Humanist Association (2019), upholding a cross memorial. Critics argue the Roberts Court is dismantling separation, with cases like Espinoza v. Montana (2020) prohibiting discrimination against religious schools in aid programs. Debates continue, with evidence affirming America’s Christian roots amid efforts to secularize, as Chief Justice Roberts’ court has been accused of eroding separation in favor of religious liberty.
The Founders’ Envisioned America
The founders wanted America to be a constitutional republic grounded in liberty, virtue, and moral principles, where individual freedoms were protected from tyranny, and self-government was sustained by an educated, moral populace. They envisioned a reality of united states forming a federal union that promoted the general welfare, secured blessings of liberty, and allowed pursuit of happiness without oppressive government interference. This was not a theocracy but a nation where religion, particularly Christian morality, underpinned civic virtue and restrained vice, ensuring the Constitution’s success. As John Adams stated, “Our Constitution was made only for a moral and religious people. It is wholly inadequate to the government of any other.” Benjamin Franklin warned: “History affords us many instances of the ruin of states, by the prosecution of measures ill suited to the temper and genius of their people.” George Washington emphasized unity and morality in his Farewell Address: “The unity of government which constitutes you one people is also now dear to you. It is justly so, for it is a main pillar in the edifice of your real independence.” James Madison in Federalist No. 51 described checks and balances to control human nature: “If men were angels, no government would be necessary.” They saw America as a beacon of freedom, with Thomas Jefferson noting: “The God who gave us life gave us liberty at the same time.” Words they would use to describe the America they wanted include “republic,” “free,” “virtuous,” “moral and religious,” “united,” “independent,” “prosperous,” “enlightened,” and “self-governing.” Critics argue this vision was elitist, limited to propertied white men, but the founders planted seeds for expansion of rights, as seen in later amendments. Their writings reflect a hope for a nation where liberty was defended against both external threats and internal corruption, with religion as a voluntary pillar of society.
